Sociology
The Sociology of Social Practices: The focus of the course
The three-year postgraduate “Sociology of Social Practices” programme is inspired on a theoretical level by a sociological practice debate that has gained increasing significance since the 1990s. A number of different approaches are viewed as the cornerstones of this sociological perspective, including Anthony Giddens’ theory of structuration (1992), Michel Foucault’s concept of technologies of the self (1989), Pierre Bourdieu’s outline of a theory of practice (Bourdieu 1976, Bourdieu/Wacquant 1996), Erving Goffmann’s frame analysis (1974) and Chantal Mouffe’s work on democratic theory (2005).
The theoretical trend behind these and other approaches shares the view that human behaviour and action can be explained neither primarily at an individual level nor primarily at a structural level. Instead, sequences of behaviour and action must be analysed from a perspective which considers not only the opportunities for action open to individual agents, but also the effect of socialized structures (Reckwitz 2000, 2002). One of the central concepts here is the concept of social practices.
According to the work of Theodore Schatzki (1997), a social practice is a nexus of verbal and non-verbal activities and can involve very different agents, who base their actions and behaviour both on tacit routines and explicit rules. Sequences of actions and their intended and unintended consequences are not based on the individual actions of a particular person with a specific purpose (motive, norm, etc.). Instead, the term practice concentrates on the repetition and repeatability of a complex of incorporated activities carried out by various agents at various points in time and in various places depending on the situation (cf. Reckwitz 2000, 542ff.).
Depending on the epistemological sphere of interest, a number of other sociological concepts form constituent elements of such a notion of social practices. Central, for instance, in this context are concepts based on the physicality of all action, the routineness of behaviour, the relevance of tacit knowledge, the meaning of material artefacts and the effects of explicit rules. Individual social practices can be analytically isolated and analysed. But in the debate on sociological practice, it is assumed that sociality emerges from the interactions between and overlaps in different social practices. It is argued that individual and bundled social practices serve as links between the behaviour patterns of the agents and the institutionalisation of structural moments. Reckwitz (2000, 2002) also illustrates that with the “sociology of social practices”, the basic problem in sociology is gradually moving away from the question of the social materialisation of action coordination towards the question of maintaining and reproducing certain social patterns.
Building on this new theoretical trend, a number of sociological publications have focused on the concept of social practices. These relate not just to sociology in general, but also to many sub-disciplines of sociology. In the sociological theory debate, Andreas Reckwitz’s cultural theoretical praxeological research programme and the American social philosopher Theodore Schatzki’s “site ontologies” approach (Schatzki 2003) have, in particular, significantly increased the explanatory power and the explanatory claims of a social theory based on the concept of social practices.
In the field of gender research, the work of Judith Butler (1991) in particular has initiated a theoretical reorientation. Similarly, sociology of practice approaches have played a defining role in the sociology of science and technology (Knorr-Cetina 2002). Recent insights in economic and consumer sociology build, for example, on Bourdieu’s field theory (Florian 2008) or concept of distinction, or examine continuity and change in everyday consumer practices (e.g. Warde 2005). Sociological practice approaches are beneficial in many other sub-disciplines, such as sociology of education (Bourdieu), labour and labour market sociology (Völker 2008) or spatial sociology (Löw 2008), in other social sciences disciplines like political sciences (Wagenaar 2004; Yanow 2004; Biegelbauer/Dierke 2009) and medical anthropology (Hadolt/Lengauer 2009), in social sciences based educational research (Lave/Wenger 1991, Brown/Duguid 2000) and also in multidisciplinary debates like sustainability research.
The Postgraduate-Programme “Sociology of Social Practices” is bound by the paradigm of theory-based empirical research. This means that the research carried out in the programme should link praxeological approaches with methodological approaches for empirical research. At the same time, these approaches should be put into practice and used empirically in specific fields of research (educational research, labour and labour market sociology, economic and consumer sociology, social sciences based sustainability research, spatial sociology and gender research). As far as methodology is concerned, a key issue lies in the linking of theory with quantitative and qualitative methods of generating and interpreting data to form a useful “mixed methods” approach (Denzin, 1989, Kelle 2007, Tashakkori/Teddlie 2003, Gorard/Taylor 2004). A range of very different methods – including qualitative approaches like grounded theory (Strauss/Corbin 1990, Strübing 2002), hermeneutics (Soeffner 1989, Tänzler/Knoblauch/Soeffner 2006) or ethnomethodology (Hirschauer 1999) – can be used to provide empirical evidence for the modus operandi and changes in social practices. For many years, observation, qualitative interviewing (Reckwitz 2008) and extended ethnographic methods were considered the primary options for collecting data. However, we should also assess whether other methods and techniques, such as the generation and evaluation of audiovisual data (Burri 2008, Jonas 2009), could also be used in the analysis of social practices.
Going beyond the qualitative methods that have dominated in the past, analysing sociology of practice questions using quantitative data and methods and possibly constructing and testing relevant causal analysis explanatory models is a particular challenge. Examples of issues related to theory of practice include market behaviour (e.g. in the field of company training decisions; Bishop 2006, Ram 1994, Rees et al. 1997) or research into how institutional social practices can be used to explain learning and education processes in schools (Scott/Meyer 1991). This offers an indication of the extent to which quantitative methods can be used in theory of practice questions beyond the descriptive recording of practices (Cheng et al. 2007, Bourdieu 1982).
The research and work that will be carried out in this postgraduate programme should contribute – both theoretically and empirically – to developing the praxeological debate in the social sciences.
References
For the german version of this text click here
The theoretical trend behind these and other approaches shares the view that human behaviour and action can be explained neither primarily at an individual level nor primarily at a structural level. Instead, sequences of behaviour and action must be analysed from a perspective which considers not only the opportunities for action open to individual agents, but also the effect of socialized structures (Reckwitz 2000, 2002). One of the central concepts here is the concept of social practices.
According to the work of Theodore Schatzki (1997), a social practice is a nexus of verbal and non-verbal activities and can involve very different agents, who base their actions and behaviour both on tacit routines and explicit rules. Sequences of actions and their intended and unintended consequences are not based on the individual actions of a particular person with a specific purpose (motive, norm, etc.). Instead, the term practice concentrates on the repetition and repeatability of a complex of incorporated activities carried out by various agents at various points in time and in various places depending on the situation (cf. Reckwitz 2000, 542ff.).
Depending on the epistemological sphere of interest, a number of other sociological concepts form constituent elements of such a notion of social practices. Central, for instance, in this context are concepts based on the physicality of all action, the routineness of behaviour, the relevance of tacit knowledge, the meaning of material artefacts and the effects of explicit rules. Individual social practices can be analytically isolated and analysed. But in the debate on sociological practice, it is assumed that sociality emerges from the interactions between and overlaps in different social practices. It is argued that individual and bundled social practices serve as links between the behaviour patterns of the agents and the institutionalisation of structural moments. Reckwitz (2000, 2002) also illustrates that with the “sociology of social practices”, the basic problem in sociology is gradually moving away from the question of the social materialisation of action coordination towards the question of maintaining and reproducing certain social patterns.
Building on this new theoretical trend, a number of sociological publications have focused on the concept of social practices. These relate not just to sociology in general, but also to many sub-disciplines of sociology. In the sociological theory debate, Andreas Reckwitz’s cultural theoretical praxeological research programme and the American social philosopher Theodore Schatzki’s “site ontologies” approach (Schatzki 2003) have, in particular, significantly increased the explanatory power and the explanatory claims of a social theory based on the concept of social practices.
In the field of gender research, the work of Judith Butler (1991) in particular has initiated a theoretical reorientation. Similarly, sociology of practice approaches have played a defining role in the sociology of science and technology (Knorr-Cetina 2002). Recent insights in economic and consumer sociology build, for example, on Bourdieu’s field theory (Florian 2008) or concept of distinction, or examine continuity and change in everyday consumer practices (e.g. Warde 2005). Sociological practice approaches are beneficial in many other sub-disciplines, such as sociology of education (Bourdieu), labour and labour market sociology (Völker 2008) or spatial sociology (Löw 2008), in other social sciences disciplines like political sciences (Wagenaar 2004; Yanow 2004; Biegelbauer/Dierke 2009) and medical anthropology (Hadolt/Lengauer 2009), in social sciences based educational research (Lave/Wenger 1991, Brown/Duguid 2000) and also in multidisciplinary debates like sustainability research.
The Postgraduate-Programme “Sociology of Social Practices” is bound by the paradigm of theory-based empirical research. This means that the research carried out in the programme should link praxeological approaches with methodological approaches for empirical research. At the same time, these approaches should be put into practice and used empirically in specific fields of research (educational research, labour and labour market sociology, economic and consumer sociology, social sciences based sustainability research, spatial sociology and gender research). As far as methodology is concerned, a key issue lies in the linking of theory with quantitative and qualitative methods of generating and interpreting data to form a useful “mixed methods” approach (Denzin, 1989, Kelle 2007, Tashakkori/Teddlie 2003, Gorard/Taylor 2004). A range of very different methods – including qualitative approaches like grounded theory (Strauss/Corbin 1990, Strübing 2002), hermeneutics (Soeffner 1989, Tänzler/Knoblauch/Soeffner 2006) or ethnomethodology (Hirschauer 1999) – can be used to provide empirical evidence for the modus operandi and changes in social practices. For many years, observation, qualitative interviewing (Reckwitz 2008) and extended ethnographic methods were considered the primary options for collecting data. However, we should also assess whether other methods and techniques, such as the generation and evaluation of audiovisual data (Burri 2008, Jonas 2009), could also be used in the analysis of social practices.
Going beyond the qualitative methods that have dominated in the past, analysing sociology of practice questions using quantitative data and methods and possibly constructing and testing relevant causal analysis explanatory models is a particular challenge. Examples of issues related to theory of practice include market behaviour (e.g. in the field of company training decisions; Bishop 2006, Ram 1994, Rees et al. 1997) or research into how institutional social practices can be used to explain learning and education processes in schools (Scott/Meyer 1991). This offers an indication of the extent to which quantitative methods can be used in theory of practice questions beyond the descriptive recording of practices (Cheng et al. 2007, Bourdieu 1982).
The research and work that will be carried out in this postgraduate programme should contribute – both theoretically and empirically – to developing the praxeological debate in the social sciences.
References
For the german version of this text click here
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